Photoactivated multivitamin preparation induces poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a DNA damage response in mammalian cells.

Multivitamin preparation (MVP) is part of total parenteral nutrition given to premature infants. Photoactivated MVP carries an important load in peroxides, but their cellular effects have not yet been determined. We hypothesized that these peroxides may elicit a DNA-damage response. We found that photoactivation of MVP and the resulting peroxide production were time-dependent and required the simultaneous presence of ascorbic acid and riboflavin. Cells treated with photoactivated MVP showed strongly stimulated poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, an early DNA-damage response in mammals. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation stimulation was dependent on the presence of ascorbic acid and riboflavin in the photoactivated MVP. It did not occur in the presence of a specific PARP inhibitor nor in mouse fibroblasts deficient in PARP-1. Photoactivated MVP was able to induce single- and double-strand breaks in DNA, with a predominance of single-stand breaks. The presence of double-strand breaks was further confirmed using a 53PB1 focus analysis. Finally, photoactivated MVP was shown to be toxic to human cells and induced caspase-independent cell death. These results suggest that photoactivated MVP carries an important toxic load able to damage DNA and induce cell death. This study also emphasizes the importance of protecting MVP solution from light before use in preterm infants.

Efficient transfection of endothelial cells by a double-pulse electroporation method.

Primary endothelial cells are largely recognized as hard-to-transfect cells. We have been using a double-pulse electroporation technique to efficiently insert genetic material into human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC). Previously, this technique has been successfully used on hard-to-transfect monocytic cells. Using a conventional electroporation device, we have tested this protocol on HUVECs and compared it with conventional transfection techniques. The average transfection efficiency was up to 68% as measured by the ability of the cells to efficiently express the red fluorophore of the tdTomato gene. Similar results were obtained in human aortic endothelial cells and human microvascular endothelial cells. This technique does not require any particular expensive device, specific medium, or reagent, and the results we obtained so far exceed those of any other previous protocol. This is therefore an affordable and efficient transfection technique that opens new avenues in vascular endothelial research.

The DNA damage-inducible C. elegans tankyrase is a nuclear protein closely linked to chromosomes.

Tankyrases are protein members of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase family bearing several ankyrin domain and a WGR domain. They have functional role in telomere maintenance, are found at centrosome, and are associated with vesicular secretion. This diversity in localization and function makes it difficult to identify a unified role for tankyrases. We have shown that the C. elegans orthologue PME-5 is among the most transcriptionally up-regulated genes following ionizing radiations, linking a tankyrase with DNA damage response. Our analysis showed that the up-regulation of PME-5 is translated at the protein level, suggesting an effective role in DNA damage response or DNA repair. In order to gain more information on the potential role of PME-5 in DNA damage response, we analyzed its sub-cellular localization. Using immunostaining as well as gfp reporter assay, we have shown a nuclear localization for PME-5. Moreover, we showed that PME-5 is a ubiquitous nuclear protein expressed throughout the development of the worm and is closely linked to chromatin and condensed chromosomes. Taken together, our data suggest that C. elegans can be used to study the nuclear roles of tankyrase.

Caenorhabditis elegans LET-767 is able to metabolize androgens and estrogens and likely shares common ancestor with human types 3 and 12 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases.

Mutations that inactivate LET-767 are shown to affect growth, reproduction, and development in Caenorhabditis elegans. Sequence analysis indicates that LET-767 shares the highest homology with human types 3 and 12 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17beta-HSD3 and 12). Using LET-767 transiently transfected into human embryonic kidney-293 cells, we have found that the enzyme catalyzes the transformation of both 4-androstenedione into testosterone and estrone into estradiol, similar to that of mouse 17beta-HSD12 but different from human and primate enzymes that catalyze the transformation of estrone into estradiol. Previously, we have shown that amino acid F234 in human 17beta-HSD12 is responsible for the selectivity of the enzyme toward estrogens. To assess whether this amino acid position 234 in LET-767 could play a role in androgen-estrogen selectivity, we have changed the methionine M234 in LET-767 into F. The results show that the M234F change causes the loss of the ability to transform androstenedione into testosterone, while conserving the ability to transform estrone into estradiol, thus confirming the role of amino acid position 234 in substrate selectivity. To further analyze the structure-function relationship of this enzyme, we have changed the three amino acids corresponding to lethal mutations in let-767 gene. The data show that these mutations strongly affect the ability of LET-767 to convert estrone in to estradiol and abolish its ability to transform androstenedione into testosterone. The high conservation of the active site and amino acids responsible for enzymatic activity and substrate selectivity strongly suggests that LET-767 shares a common ancestor with human 17beta-HSD3 and 12.

Altered DNA damage response in Caenorhabditis elegans with impaired poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolases genes expression.

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is one of the first cellular responses induced by DNA damage. Poly(ADP-ribose) is rapidly synthesized by nick-sensor poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases, which facilitate DNA repair enzymes to process DNA damage. ADP-ribose polymers are rapidly catabolized into free ADP-ribose units by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG). The metabolism of poly(ADP-ribose) is a well-defined biochemical process for which a physiological role in animals is just beginning to emerge. Two Caenorhabditis elegans PARGs, PME-3 and PME-4, have been cloned by our group. The pme-3 gene encodes an enzyme of 89kDa having less than 18% overall identity with human PARG but 42% identity with the PARG signature motif. The pme-4 gene codes for a PARG of 55kDa with approximately 22% overall identity with human PARG and 40% identity with the PARG signature motif. Two alternatively spliced forms of PME-3 were identified with an SL1 splice leader on both forms of the mRNA and were found to be expressed throughout the worm's life cycle. Similarly, pme-4 was shown to be expressed in all developmental stages of the worm. Recombinant enzymes that were expressed in bacteria displayed a PARG activity that may partly account for the PARG activity measured in the total worm extract. Reporter gene analysis of pme-3 and pme-4 using a GFP fusion construct showed that pme-3 and pme-4 are mainly expressed in nerve cells. PME-3 was shown to be nuclear while PME-4 localized to the cytoplasm. Worms with pme-3 and pme-4 expression knocked-down by RNAi showed a significant sensitivity toward ionizing radiations. Taken together, these data provide evidence for a physiological role for PARGs in DNA damage response and survival. It also shows that PARGs are evolutionarily conserved enzymes and that they are part of an ancient cellular response to DNA damage.

Ionizing radiations in Caenorhabditis elegans induce poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a conserved DNA-damage response essential for survival.

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is one of the first responses to DNA damage in mammals. Although it is involved in base excision repair, its exact role has not been ascertained yet. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and PARP-2 mediate most of the poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation response in mammals and are well conserved in evolution. Their respective homologues PME-1 and PME-2 are found in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a well-known genetically tractable model currently used in DNA damage response research. Here we report the functional analysis of PME-1 and PME-2 in presence of DNA damage. Worms irradiated with high doses of ionizing radiations displayed a sharp drop in their NAD(+) content immediately after treatment, and a biphasic increase in poly(ADP-ribose). The physiological importance of the poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation response was highlighted when worms were preincubated with mammalian PARP inhibitors (3AB, DHQ, PJ34) and irradiated. The embryonic survival rate of the progeny was significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner. The inhibitor 3AB had a weak effect on embryonic survival, followed closely by DHQ. However, PJ34, a member of the phenantridinone family, was very effective even when used at low concentration (100nM). In vitro PARP assay using recombinant PME-1 and PME-2 showed a similar pattern of inhibition where 3AB and DHQ were weak inhibitors, and PJ34 a stronger one. Inhibitors affect mostly the poly(ADP-ribose) polymers elongation at high concentrations. These results suggest that poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in response to DNA damage is an ancient and very important biochemical process protecting DNA from deleterious modification.

The Caenorhabditis elegans FancD2 ortholog is required for survival following DNA damage.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by bone-marrow failure, congenital abnormalities, and cancer susceptibility. There are 11 FA complementation groups in human where 8 genes have been identified. We found that FancD2 is conserved in evolution and present in the genome of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The gene Y41E3.9 (CeFancD2) encodes a structural ortholog of human FANCD2 and is composed of 10 predicted exons. Our analysis showed that exons 6 and 7 were absent from a CeFancD2 EST suggesting the presence of a splice variant. In an attempt to characterize its role in DNA damage, we depleted worms of CeFANCD2 using RNAi. When the CeFANCD2(RNAi) worms were treated with a crosslinking agent, a significant drop in the progeny survival was noted. These worms were also sensitive, although to a lesser extent, to ionizing radiation (IR). Therefore, these data support an important role for CeFANCD2 in DNA damage response as for its human counterpart. The data also support the usefulness of C. elegans to study the Fanconi anemia pathway, and emphasize the biological importance of FANCD2 in DNA damage response throughout evolution.

The C. elegans gene pme-5: molecular cloning and role in the DNA-damage response of a tankyrase orthologue.

Tankyrases are recently identified proteins characterized by ankyrin repeats and a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) signature motif. In vertebrates, tankyrases mediate protein-protein interactions via the ankyrin domain. Many partners have been identified that could function in telomere maintenance, signal transduction in vesicular transport, and cell death. To further our knowledge of tankyrases and to study their function in development, we sought and found a tankyrase-related gene in Caenorhabditis elegans that we named pme-5 (poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism enzyme-5). The protein encoded includes a large ankyrin domain and a catalytic PARP domain containing the well-conserved PARP signature sequence and the regulatory region. Unlike other tankyrases, PME-5 lacks a sterile-alpha module (SAM), but has a coiled coil domain which may mediate oligomerization. We also found that pme-5 mRNA is alternatively spliced at the fifth exon, producing a long (PME-5L) and a short (PME-5S) transcript. Both isoforms are constitutively expressed during the life cycle of C. elegans. We also show DNA damage increases expression of pme-5, a response that requires the DNA damage checkpoint gene hus-1. Moreover, DNA damage-induced germ cell apoptosis was slightly increased in pme-5(RNAi) hermaphrodites. Altogether, these data indicate that pme-5 is part of a DNA damage response pathway which leads to apoptosis in C. elegans.

Single amino acid substitution enhances bacterial expression of PARP-4D214A.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is the canonical member of the PARP family of enzymes and modulates many crucial nuclear functions. PARP-1 is involved in apoptosis and is the substrate of caspase-3, a protease that cleaves PARP-1 at the conserved sequence 211DEVD214. To generate a caspase-3-uncleavable PARP-1, we introduced an amino acid substitution D214-->A214 at the site of cleavage. We observed that following over-expression in bacteria, the mutant protein HIS-PARP-1D214A was expressed several-fold more than a unmutated copy, HIS-PARP-1. The specific activity of HIS-PARP-1 enzyme in total bacterial extracts was 6.94 U/mg and 4.61 U/mg for HIS-PARP-1D214A. This approach should provide new avenues for crystallographic study of PARP-1 as well as new information for drug design targeting PARP-1.

The genes pme-1 and pme-2 encode two poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are an expanding, well-conserved family of enzymes found in many metazoan species, including plants. The enzyme catalyses poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a post-translational modification that is important in DNA repair and programmed cell death. In the present study, we report the finding of an endogenous source of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in total extracts of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Two cDNAs encoding highly similar proteins to human PARP-1 (huPARP-1) and huPARP-2 are described, and we propose to name the corresponding enzymes poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism enzyme 1 (PME-1) and PME-2 respectively. PME-1 (108 kDa) shares 31% identity with huPARP-1 and has an overall structure similar to other PARP-1 subfamily members. It contains sequences having considerable similarity to zinc-finger motifs I and II, as well as with the catalytic domain of huPARP-1. PME-2 (61 kDa) has structural similarities with the catalytic domain of PARPs in general and shares 24% identity with huPARP-2. Recombinant PME-1 and PME-2 display PARP activity, which may partially account for the similar activity found in the worm. A partial duplication of the pme-1 gene with pseudogene-like features was found in the nematode genome. Messenger RNA for pme-1 are 5'-tagged with splice leader 1, whereas those for pme - 2 are tagged with splice leader 2, suggesting an operon-like expression for pme - 2. The expression pattern of pme-1 and pme-2 is also developmentally regulated. Together, these results show that PARP-1 and -2 are conserved in evolution and must have important functions in multicellular organisms. We propose using C. elegans as a model to understand better the functions of these enzymes.